Contribution Of Indian Mathematics History Essay

Contribution Of Indian Mathematics History Essay Mathematics is the study of numbers, and counting, and measuring, but that is only the beginning. Mathematics involves the study of number patterns and relationships, too. It is also a way to communicate ideas, and perhaps more than anything, it is a way of reasoning that is unique to human beings. Mathematics plays a vital role in the modernization of this civilization. It is everywhere and affects the everyday lives of people. Although it is abstract and theoretical knowledge, it emerges from the real world. It is also a way to communicate and analyze ideas, a tool for organizing and interpreting data and above all, perhaps a method of logical reasoning unique to man. Mathematics is a necessary part of other sciences. In the words of Physicist Richard Feynan (2002) Nature talks to us in the language of mathematics that is numbers, mathematical rules and equations help us to make sense of the world around us (The Book of Popular Science). Mathematics in some form or other has been s ince the early age of human civilization. But its use in todays world has assumed great importance, since without its application higher technology cannot be mastered and harnessed for increasing production of goods and services and promoting human welfare. Over the centuries there has been spectacular progress in the development of mathematics as a branch of knowledge. And without the application of mathematics on a wide scale no country can march forward in line with the general progress of human knowledge and thought. Therefore learning of mathematics and promoting the horizons of knowledge by advanced researches in mathematics should be over emphasized. Thus, mathematics is an important and inseparable part of human life. It has been existed and developed since the ancient era and the aim of this article is to give a brief review of a few of the outstanding innovations introduced by Indian mathematics from ancient times to modern as Indias contribution in the field of mathematic s is immense and it should always be studied from a thoughtful perspective. Key Words: INTRODUCTION: India was the motherland of our race and Sanskrit the mother of Europes languages. India was the mother of our philosophy, of much of our mathematics, of the ideals embodied in Christianity of self-government and democracy. In many ways, Mother India is the mother of us all. Will Durant, American Historian 1885-1981 Mathematics is an important field of study. Mathematics is vital as it helps in developing lots of practical skills, in fact study of mathematics itself include the concepts related to the routine lives of human. It not only develops mathematical skills and concepts, it also helps in developing the attitudes, interest, and appreciation and provides opportunities to develop ones own thinking. So, mathematics is undoubtedly a discipline which is imperative to know and study. Fig. 1, Importance of MathematicsC:UsersnaveenDesktopUntitled.png Mathematics has played a very significant role in the development of Indian culture for millennia. Mathematical ideas that originated in the Indian subcontinent have had a thoughtful impact on the world. In ancient time, mathematics was mainly used in an auxiliary or applied role. Thus mathematical methods were used to solve problems in architecture and construction (as in the public works of the Harrappan civilization) in astronomy and astrology (as in the Jain mathematicians) and in the construction of Vedic altars (as in the case of the Shulba Sutras of Baudhayana and his successors). By the sixth or fifth century BCE, mathematics was studied for its own sake, as well as for its application in other fields of knowledge. In fact there does not seem to have been a time in Indian history when mathematics was not being developed. Recent work has unearthed many manuscripts, and what were previously regarded as inactive periods in Indian mathematics are now known to have been very activ e. The picture is yet not complete, and it seems that there is much more to do in the field of the history of Indian mathematics. The challenges are twofold. First, there is the task of locating and identifying manuscripts and of translating them into a language that is more familiar to modern scholars. Second there is the task of interpreting the significance of the work that was done. The time is ripe to make a major effort to develop as complete a picture as possible of Indian mathematics. The importance of mathematics in India can be seen by a well-known verse in Sanskrit of VedangJyotish (written 1000 BC) as: This verse means that As the crown on the head of a peacock and as the gem on the hood of a snake, so stands Mathematics crowned above all disciplines of knowledge. This fact was well known to intellectuals of India that is why they gave special importance to the development of mathematics, right from the beginning. Indian mathematicians made great strides in developing arithmetic, algebra, geometry, infinite series expansions and calculus. Indian works, through a variety of translations, have had significant influence throughout the world. Mathematics in ancient times (3000 to 600 BCE) The oldest evidence of mathematical knowledge to Indians is being found in Indus Valley Civilization. The metallic seals found in the excavations of Mohan-Jo-Daro and Harrapan indicates that the people of this civilization had the knowledge of numbers. It is also clear from the pottery and other archaeological remains that they had the knowledge of measurement and geometry even in crude form. The Indus valley civilization is considered to have existed around 3000 BCE. Two of its most famous cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, provide evidence that construction of buildings followed a standardized measurement which was decimal in nature. Here, we see mathematical ideas developed for the purpose of construction. This civilization had an advanced brick-making technology (having invented the kiln). Bricks were used in the construction of buildings and embankments for flood control. The study of astronomy is considered to be even older, and there must have been mathematical theories on which it was based. Even in later times, we find that astronomy motivated considerable mathematical development, especially in the field of trigonometry. Much has been written about the mathematical constructions that are to be found in Vedic literature. In particular, the Shatapatha Brahmana, which is a part of the Shukla Yajur Veda, contains detailed descriptions of the geometric construction of altars for yajnas. Here, the brick-making technology of the Indus valley civilization was put to a new use. Supplementary to the Vedas are the Shulba Sutras. These texts are considered to date from 800 to 200 BCE. Four in number, they are named after their authors: Baudhayana (600 BCE), Manava (750 BCE), Apastamba (600 BCE), and Katyayana (200 BCE). The sutras contain the famous theorem commonly attributed to Pythagoras. The Shulba Sutras introduce the concept of irrational numbers, numbers that are not the ratio of two whole numbers. It is interesting that the mathematics of this period seems to have been developed for solving practical geometric problems, especially the construction of religious altars. However, the study of the series expansion for certain functions already hints at the development of an algebraic perspective. In later times, we find a shift towards algebra, with simplification of algebraic formulate and summation of series acting as catalysts for mathematical discovery. Jain Mathematics (600 BCE to 500 CE) Just as Vedic philosophy and theology inspired the development of certain aspects of mathematics, so too did the rise of Jainism. Jain cosmology led to ideas of the infinite. This in turn, led to the development of the notion of orders of infinity as a mathematical concept. By orders of infinity, we mean a theory by which one set could be deemed to be more infinite than another. In modern language, this corresponds to the notion of cardinality. For a finite set, its cardinality is the number of elements it contains. However, we need a more sophisticated notion to measure the size of an infinite set. In Europe, it was not until Cantors work in the nineteenth century that a proper concept of cardinality was established. Besides the investigations into infinity, this period saw developments in several other fields such as number theory, geometry, computing, with fractions. In particular, the recursion formula for binomial coefficients and the Pascals triangle were already known in this period. The period 600 CE coincides with the rise and dominance of Buddhism. In the Lalitavistara, a biography of the Buddha which may have been written around the first century CE, there is an incident about Gautama being asked to state the name of large powers of 10 starting with 10. He is able to give names to numbers up to 10 (tallaksana). The very fact that such large numbers had names suggests that the mathematicians of the day were comfortable thinking about very large numbers. It is hard to imagine calculating with such numbers without some form of place value system. Brahmi Numerals, The place-value system and Zero No account of Indian mathematics would be complete without a discussion of Indian numerals, the place-value system, and the concept of zero. The numerals that we use even today can be traced to the Brahmi numerals that seem to have made their appearance in 300 BCE. But Brahmi numerals were not part of a place value system. They evolved into the Gupta numerals around 400 CE and subsequently into the Devnagari numerals, which developed slowly between 600 and 1000 CE. By 600 CE, a place-value decimal system was well in use in India. This means that when a number is written down, each symbol that is used has an absolute value, but also a value relative to its position. For example, the numbers 1 and 5 have a value on their own, but also have a value relative to their position in the number 15. The importance of a place-value system need hardly be emphasized. It would suffice to cite an often-quoted remark by La-place: It is India that gave us the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit. But its very simplicity and the great ease which it has lent to computations put our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions; and we shall appreciate the magnificence of the achievement the more when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apolloniu s, two of the greatest men produced by ancient times. A place-value system of numerals was apparently known in other cultures; for example, the Babylonians used a sexagesimal place-value system as early as 1700 BCE, but the Indian system was the first decimal system. Moreover, until 400 BCE, The Babylonian system had an inherent ambiguity as there was no symbol for zero. Thus it was not a complete place-value system in the way we think of it today. The elevation of zero to the same status as other numbers involved difficulties that many brilliant mathematicians struggled with. The main problem was that the rules of arithmetic had to be formulated so as to include zero. While addition, subtraction, and multiplication with zero were mastered, division was a more subtle question. Today, we know that division by zero is not well-defined and so has to be excluded from the rules of arithmetic. But this understanding did not come all at once, and took the combined efforts of many minds. It is interesting to note that it was not until the seventeenth century that zero was being used in Europe. The Classical Era of Indian Mathematics (500 to 1200 CE) The most famous names of Indian mathematics belong to what is known as the classical era. This includes Aryabhata I (500 CE) Brahmagupta (700 CE), Bhaskara I (900 CE), Mahavira (900 CE), Aryabhatta II (1000 CE) and Bhaskarachrya or Bhaskara II (1200 CE). During this period, two centers of mathematical research emerged, one at Kusumapura near Pataliputra and the other at Ujjain. Aryabhata I was the dominant figure at Kusumapura. One of Aryabhatas discoveries was a method for solving linear equations of the form ax + by = c. Aryabhata devised a general method for solving such equations, and he called it the kuttaka (or pulverizer) method. It should be noted that Aryabhatas studied linear equations because of his interest in astronomy. Amongst other important contributions of Aryabhata is his approximation of Pie to four decimal places (3.14146) and work on trigonometry. The other major centre of mathematical learning during this period was Ujjain, which was home to Varahamihira, Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya. The text Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta by Brahmagupta, published in 628 CE, dealt with arithmetic involving zero and negative numbers. As with Aryabhata, Brahmagupta was an astronomer, and much of his work was motivated by problems that arose in astronomy. He gave the famous formula for a solution to the quadratic equation. Brahmagupta also studied quadratic equation in two variables and sought solutions in whole numbers. This period closes with Bhaskaracharya (1200 CE). In his fundamental work on arithmetic (titled Lilavati) he refined the kuttaka method of Aryabhata and Brahmagupta. The Lilavati is impressive for its originality and diversity of topics. Brahmagupta discovered a method, which he called samasa, by which; given two solutions of the equation a third solution could be found. Brahmaguptas lemma was known one thousand years before it was rediscovered in Europe by Fermat, Legendre, and others. This method appears now in most standard text books and courses in number theory. The name of the equation is a historical accident. Mathematics in South India Mahavira is a mathematician belonging to the ninth century who was most likely from modern day Karnataka. He studied the problem of cubic and quartic equations and solved them for some families of equations. His work had a significant impact on the development of mathematics in South India. His book Ganita- sara- sangraha amplifies the work of Brahmagulpta and provides a very useful reference for the state of mathematics in his day. Another notable mathematician of South India was Madhava from Kerala. Madhava belongs to the fourteenth century. He discovered series expansions for some trigonometric functions such as the sine, cosine and arctangent that were not known in Europe until after Newton. In modern terminology, these expansions are the Taylor series of the functions in question. Madhava gave an approximation to Pie of 3.14159265359, which goes far beyond the four decimal places computed by Aryabhata. Madhavas work with series expansions suggests that he either discovered elements of the differential calculus or nearly did so. Mathematics in the Modern Age In more recent times there have been many important discoveries made by mathematicians of Indian origin. We shall mention the work of three of them: Srinivasa Ramanujan, Harish-Chandra, and Manjul Bhargava. Ramanujan (1887- 1920) is perhaps the most famous of modern Indian mathematicians. Though he produced significant and beautiful results in many aspects of number theory, his most lasting discovery may be the arithmetic theory of modular forms. In an important paper published in 1916, he initiated the study of the Pie function. Ramanujan proved some properties of the function and conjectured many more. As a result of his work, the modern arithmetic theory of modular forms, which occupies a central place in number theory and algebraic geometry, was developed by Hecke. Harish-Chandra (1923- 83) is perhaps the least known Indian mathematician outside of mathematical circles. He began his career as a physicist, working under Dirac. In his thesis, he worked on the representation theory of the group SL2 (C). This work convinced him that he was really a mathematician, and he spent the remainder of his academic life working on the representation theory of semi-simple groups. For most of that period, he was a professor at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. His Collected Papers published in four volumes contain more than 2,000 pages. His style is known as meticulous and thorough and his published work tends to treat the most general case at the very outset. This is in contrast to many other mathematicians, whose published work tends to evolve through special cases. Interestingly, the work of Harish-Chandra formed the basis of Langlandss theory of automorphic forms, which are a vast generalization of the modular forms considered by R amanujan. CONCLUSION: The present mathematical knowledge has not dropped as a bolt from the blue, nor a product of some magical tricks. The apparently ready-made knowledge and results have been achieved after centuries of efforts, often painful, by hundreds of mathematicians and historians through the ages. Lots of discoveries and inventers contributed to the fruits, facilities and luxuries which we enjoy today were the contribution of Indian mathematicians. From the notion of zero to the modern concept of computational number theory, their contribution is significant. It is without doubt that mathematics today owes a huge debt to the outstanding contributions made by Indian mathematicians over many hundreds of years. What is quite surprising is that there has been a reluctance to recognize this and one has to conclude that many famous historians of mathematics found what they expected to find, or perhaps even what they hoped to find, rather than to realize what was so clear in front of them. Kim Plofker from Netherland says that Indian mathematical science is extremely important and has a significant effect on the worlds knowledge as it is today. The lack of available resources has kept us under informed about the developments that have taken place in India. It is the need of the hour to carry forward the legacy of great mathematicians so as to encourage and nurture the glorious tradition of the country in mathematics. The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions. The importance of this invention is more readily appreciated when one considers that it was beyond the two greatest men of ancient times, Archimedes and Apollonius.

Sailing to Byzantium Essay -- W.B. Yeats Sailing to Byzantium Essays

Sailing to Byzantium In W.B. Yeats, â€Å"Sailing to Byzantium† the narrator is an older man looking at his life with detest as the way it appears now. He is holding resent for the way the young get to live their lives and how he lives his now. The narrator is dealing with the issue of being older and his sadness of worth in this life, and who is later able to come to terms and accept his life. In â€Å"Sailing to Byzantium† the poem is broken up into four stanzas, each describing a different part of the voyage and the feeling associate with it. Stanza I is the narrators departure to Byzantium; II the voyage done by boat and landing in Byzantium; III in the holy city of Byzantium and visiting the ancient landmarks; IV the desire of the narrator to become a part of physical aspect of Byzantium. In first stanza the narrator of the poem describes that the lands of where he is from is not for the older people, there are too many young people frolicking around enjoying their lives, while the older people and sulking and are not take pleasure in their own lives. To him he sees the young people neglecting the knowledge they have around them â€Å"Caught in that sensual music all neglect Monuments of unageing intellect.† The place he is taking his voyage to see to be much more enjoyable when the people are more full of life. It seems to the man that everyone within Byzantium is able to escape life through music. In the second stanza, the man is likely mediating aboard the ship on growing old. (Hochman 211) He feels that as if his body is withering away and that his is much more badly off then any of the young. According to Olsen, in the line â€Å"every tatter in this mortal dress† is cause for further argumentation of joy, and the soul is able to rejoice. (216) â€Å"The soul of the aged must be strong to seek that which youth neglects. Hence the old must seek Byzantium; that is the county of the old.† (Olsen 216) When they reach Byzantium they are no longer forced to look at the youth of things but are allowed to appreciate the long development in the holy city, which happened long ago. The narrator has landed into the city realizing how magnificent of a place Byzantium really is. During the third stanza the narrator summons the wise old men who are portrayed thought the golden walls of the Byzantine churches. The narrator asks to be knowledgeable about in the anc... ...zantium.† Poetry for Students. Ed. Marie Rose and Rubuy, Mary K. Rev. ed. Gale, 1997 211-214 Napoerkpwsi, Marie Rose and Rubuy, Mary K., ed. Poetry for Students. Rev. ed. Vol.2 America: Gale Research, 1998. 19 vols. Olson, Elder, â€Å"Sailing to Byzantium: Prolegomena to a Poetics of the Lyric,† in On Value Judgments in the Arts and Other Essays, University of Chicago Press, 1976 Yeats, W.B. The Collection of Poems by W.B. Yeats: Definitive Edition, With the Author’s Final Revisions. New York: MacMillan, 1959 Michael Harvey’s Nuts and Bolts of College Writing 2002 < http://nutsandbolts.washcoll.edu/mla.html> Wright C. â€Å"Sailing to Byzantium-Help† William Butler Yeats Campfire June 2000 < http://killdevilhill.com/yeatschat/messages2/1695.html> Analysis of Yeasts’ â€Å"Sailing to Byzantium† < http://courses.washington.edu/englhtml/engl481/yeats.htm> [minstrels] Sailing to Byzantium -- William Butler Yeats Mar. 1999 < http://www.cs.rice.edu/~ssiyer/minstrels/poems/21.html> http://www.geocities.com/Athens/5379/SailingToByzantium.html Date Unknown < http://www.geocities.com/Athens/5379/SailingToByzantium.html>

Educational Preparation of the Baccalaureate Degree Nurse

Educational Preparation of the Baccalaureate degree Nurse ShellyCraw March 16, 2013 Educational Preparation of the Baccalaureate degree Nurse To truly understand the differences between the Baccalaureate of Science in nursing degree verses the Diploma nurse and the Associates Degree in Nursing, you must first be able to understand the definition, description and the competencies of each Degree. 1. Definition of the Diploma Nurse A Diploma Nurse is someone who completes a nursing curriculum associated with a hospital or medical facility than traditional colleges. The Diploma Nurse program is a three-year program. (â€Å"Diploma vs.BSN,† 2010, p. 1) 2. Definition of the Associates Degree in Nursing An Associate’s Degree in Nursing is a two to three year degree. Requirements are a minimum of 60 semester credit hours. Often these nursing degrees are conferred at community colleges. There are many 4 year colleges and universities that offer the associates degree programs as well. (Seehorn, â€Å"n. d. †, p. 1) 3. Definition of the Baccalaureate Degree in Nursing (BSN) A Baccalaureate Degree in nursing is described as a Bachelor of Science degree with a major in nursing that combines theory and clinical nursing courses and is granted by an accredited school. Read Chapter 8 Microbial GeneticsThis degree is a 4 year degree which requires a minimum of 120 semester credit hours. (â€Å"Bachelor Degree,† â€Å"n. d. †, Para. 1) There are many levels of nursing degrees out there today and there are different competencies between them. The Nursing state licensure began in 1903. The importance of this date protects the public and helps nurses to define the role and scope of nursing practice. At one time all nurses in the U. S. were diploma pre-pared. The nursing Diploma began around World War 2. During the war, little girls were encouraged to go into the nursing profession from reading or being read to the children’s book series of Cherry Ames.She used to be a hospital diploma nurse. My grandmother told me about these books when I was younger so when I started to research the differences between nursing degrees I came across information on Cherry Ames, The hospital Diploma Nurse. The hospital-based nursing Diploma schools co ntinue to decrease, but many still exist. Some diploma nursing schools require you to complete your non-nursing prerequisite courses at another school. Competencies for diploma nurses came from attending classes and hands-on training in their school which was associated with a hospital or medical facility rather than traditional colleges.Nursing education has changed in so many ways. Nursing education can either be taken on-line or in a classroom setting. Each degree provides different job opportunities. Knowing what specialty you may want to go into will be very important in deciding the nursing program and even the school you attend to obtain your degree. (â€Å"Diploma vs. BSN,† 2010, p. 1) Another path to becoming a registered nurse or R. N. is to obtain an Associate Degree in nursing, also known as Associate of nursing (AN), Associate of applied science in nursing (AAS) and Associate of Science in Nursing (ASN).The Associate degree programs began in 1952. This started up nursing to a diverse population than had existed with the diploma and baccalaureate nursing education. An Associate Degree in nursing can be earned at either a community college, technical college or a university in two to three years time. An Associate Degree nurse focuses on the technical teachings of nursing. The competencies of the Associate Degree Nurse are to take classes in nursing, physiology anatomy, microbiology, chemistry, nutrition, psychology and other social and behavioral sciences.Also required of the Associate Degree Nurse is to complete supervised clinical experiences. The Associate Degree in nursing program is shorter and focuses on clinical skills, more task oriented but lacking theory and science of the nursing profession. You will find theoretical and academic teaching of nursing covered in a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) program. The Diploma, Associate Degree and the Bachelor of Science Degree in Nursing will qualify a person to take the same licensing exam NCLEX. (Seehorn, â€Å"n. . †, p. 1 In the Baccalaureate degree in Nursing (BSN) helps prepare nurses for a profession away from the bedside nursing role. The coursework is focused on incorporating the nurse’s roles of critical thinking skills, communication, assessment, providing patient centered care, teaching in our clinical settings or out into the community, and leading. The values of this caring professional approach include autonomy, altruism, human dignity, integrity and social justice with unconditional regard for all people.The Nursing practice for the BSN is best described as promotion of health, prevention of disease, early detection of health deviations, early adequate treatment of the human response to chronic and acute illness, and compassionate care for those around and experiencing death. The BSN is a longer program and focuses on nursing theory and research based and emphasizes on the entire field of nursing which would include human diversity, g lobal perspective, health promotion, and spiritual perspectives, ethical, legal, political, historical and social influences and including biblical concepts for complete understanding of the nursing field.Nursing care and or approaches to decision-making may differ based upon the educational preparation of the nurse (BSN versus a diploma or ADN degree). Nurses are in demand more and more each day and with that come knowledge of the profession. With the increase of patient care needs in clinical and medical facilities, nurses have been called to do more in and outside of their scope of practices calling for more education for current hospital nurses. In the hospital that I am currently working at, I have seen an increase in nurse clinicians hired to work side by side with a physician.The qualifications for working as a nurse clinician in a hospital setting are hospital nursing experience and a Baccalaureate degree in Nursing. Due to the increase in patient care in the hospital settin g the need for effective medical care was needed in the help of improving patient outcomes, less hospital re-admissions and shorter hospital stays. Nursing care has taken on a much bigger role than just your basic bed-side nursing role; it has incorporated the nursing care plans, critical thinking and collaboration between medical team members.Nursing demands will continue to grow in our fast paced world that we are living in and in the future. We will continue to face nursing shortages, global society changes, environment changes, potential pandemic diseases and wars. Through continuing education, nurses will have the tools they will need to face the future of nursing. References Bachelor of Science Degree in Nursing. (â€Å"n. d. †). Retrieved from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Bachelor_of_science_in_nursing ugrad1. gcu. edu/learningPlatform/content/content. tml? operation=viewContent&contentId=64c8752c-002a-46c8-8d0c-33de471e7902 Seehorn, A. (â€Å"n. d. †). Defini tion of an Associate Degree. Retrieved from http://www. ehow. com/about_5095401_definition-associate-degree. html#ixzz2NgBBh9Xx Competency Differences between ADN verses BSN Nurses. Retrieved from What are the differences between a Diploma Nurse and a Bsn Nurse? (2010). Retrieved from http://www. healthecareers. com/article/what-are-the-differences-between-a-diploma-nurse-and-a-bsn-nurse/158335

William Rehnquist, Conservative Stalwart on the Supreme Court

William Rehnquist was one of the most influential U.S. Supreme Court justices in modern history, a conservative stalwart who dissented with the majority jurists in the Roe v. Wade opinion legalizing abortion and who built a coalition on the bench who sought to limit the power of the federal government. Rehnquist, an appointee of Republican President Richard M. Nixon who was named chief justice by President Ronald Reagan, served 33 years on the high court before dying at age 80 in September 2005. Rehnquist was a Goldwater Republican whose passions were federalism — limiting congressional power and strengthening state powers — and expression of religion. He argued that just because an action is religiously motivated, does not make it consequence-free for society, and should not make it consequence-free, under societys laws. Rehnquist also voted consistently in support of the death penalty and in opposition to gay rights. He often wrote solo dissents in his early years on the bench. Rehnquist may best be remembered for the 5-4 decision in the 2000 presidential election that stopped the Florida recount and propelled George W. Bush into the White House. He was only the second chief justice to preside over presidential impeachment hearings. Heres a look at Rehnquists biggest opinions on the Supreme Court. Roe v. Wade The courts majority held in 1974 that a woman, with her doctor, could choose abortion in earlier months of pregnancy without legal restriction, based primarily on the right to privacy. Rehnquist wrote  the dissent, in which he noted: I have difficulty in concluding, as the Court does, that the right of privacy is involved in this case. National League of Cities v. Usery Rehnquist wrote the majority opinion in 1976, which invalided federal minimum wage requirements for local and state government employees. This case highlighted the 10th Amendment, which reserves for the states powers not explicitly enumerated elsewhere in the Constitution; this Amendment is the foundation for the states rights movement. Wallace v. Jaffree This 1985 court decision invalided an Alabama law providing a moment for silent prayer in public schools. Rehnquist dissented, contending that the belief that the founders intended to erect a wall of separation between church and state was misguided. Texas v Johnson This 1989 case found flag-burning to be a protected form of political speech under the First Amendment. Rehnquist wrote one of two dissents in this 5-4 decision, saying that the flag is the visible symbol embodying our Nation ... not simply another idea or point of view competing in the marketplace of ideas. United States v. Lopez   Rehnquist wrote the majority opinion in this 1995 case, which declared unconstitutional the Gun Free School Zones Act of 1990. The act gave schools a 1,000-foot gun-free perimeter. Rehnquists ruling states that Congress can regulate only commerce - its channels and instruments as well as substantive actions. Kelo v New London In this controversial 2005 decision, the court expanded the power of the Fifth Amendment, saying that local governments may take property for private use because, in this case, there was a plan that promised jobs and revenue. Sandra Day OConnor wrote for the minority, which included Rehnquist: Under the banner of economic development, all private property is now vulnerable to being taken and transferred to another private owner, so long as it might be upgraded - i.e., given to an owner who will use it in a way that the legislature deems more beneficial to the public - in the process.

Sports Sports And Sports - 844 Words

There are six sports that I chose to research. They consist of; volleyball, hockey, tennis, golf, football, and basketball. I wlll be taking a close look at several different things. One thing will be where the sports are played. Another thing will be the equipment requirements for each sport and the cost to play. Volleyball, hockey, tennis, golf, football, and basketball can all be categorized into two dissimilar categories such as, team and individual. Volleyball, basketball, football, and hockey are known as team sports. Golf and tennis are known as individual sports. Team sports are where you play with teammates. Individual sports are where you play by yourself. Volleyball has six players on the court and is played by two teams with a dividing net. The object of the game is to hit the ball over the next and not let the other team return it. Three hits are given to each team so they can return the ball. Hockey is made up of two teams that have six players each. In an attempt to score points, five of the players skate around the rink. The object of the game is to score more points than the other team by passing the puck through the other teams goal. Every goal you make is worth one point. Tennis consists of games, sets, and matches. In order to win, you must win 6 games to win a set. If you want to win a match, you must win 2 out of the 3 sets at-least. The scoring goes as following; 0 (love), 15, 30, 40. If your opponent has 30 or less, and you have earned 40, thenShow MoreRelatedSports : Sports And Sports2137 Words   |  9 PagesEthics in Sports Sports in the twentieth first century has become an essential component of education. Recreational athletic activities have a great role in perfecting human spirit. Through the healthy competition sports influence the cultivation of will, perseverance, responsibility, ability to eliminate the inconvenience and many more. 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Medieval Themes Reflected in Modern Literature and Movies...

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Research Proposal Information and Communication

Question: Discuss about the Research ProposalforInformation and Communication. Answer: Introduction World has advanced by leaps and bounds by the last decade and we are now in an age where information drives the requirements of society, economy, work, space, culture, etc. With this notion there is a philosophy among the research scholars that with the advancement of information technology we are in the middle of an information society. One concern regarding this development is how to make it more inclusive. However, the greatest hurdle with this advancement is the ways or procedures which would make this an inclusive phenomenon. A world summit was held wherein delegates from several societies had been invited to participate in the mutual exchange of ideas and representatives of government and civil society organizations from 175 countries had participated wherein this resolution was passed: " common desire and commitment to build a people-centred, inclusive and development-oriented Information Society, where everyone can create, access, utilize, and share information and knowledge, enabling individuals, communities and peoples to achieve their full potential in promoting their sustainable development and improving their quality of life" . This has made it imperative for the government that they take active part in the global information technology advancement process for the upliftment of their country and the world as a whole. But before the government takes any step towards implementing policies which would initiate the growth and development of information technology, there is a strong need to identify and evaluate the underlying development theories which would pave the path for the growth of the society which is sustainable (Weigel 2006). This research makes an attempt to understand the diverse development paradigms that are prevalent in the existing literature in line with the concept of information and communication technology as a means to development. Then there is elaborate discussion on the growth of inequitable access to information and communication technology which is popularly addressed as digital divide. This research also makes an attempt to bring together the policies and frameworks which has made an attempt towards bridging this gap so that people have a better access to technology and technology related products. The last section of the research talks about the capability index and how it has emerged as the superior method in measuring the advancement as well as the impact of ICT in achieving the developmental goals of the society (Voogt Netherlands 2010). State of The Art/Literature Review: The concept of information society which has become extremely popular over the last few decades underpins the fact that it has to pass thorough several phases of evolution to establish itself in the society. It has been closely intertwined with the goals of modernization and globalization which has driven the development of society as a whole. Information has emerged as the cornerstone of evolution in countries all over the world and there has been integration among the participants all over the world through information technology (Sutthichaimethee 2016). Information technology is viewed as a tool to develop a nation and participate in the development process. As such with the advent of globalization there has been increased application of information and communication technology which makes it all the more imperative (Strauss 2003). But over the years researchers have seriously questioned the efficacy of such growth measure since it has been seen invariably that growth in one measure leads to underdevelopment in the other. It is generally seen that when one country excels in economic progress the other tends to lag behind. This disparity is widespread and although measures have been taken to bridge the gap it has not been much successful (Schware Choudhury 2008). The reason for this disparity lies more with capitalism than with the use and applicability of information and communication technology. But these has motivate the developing world to question the traditional concepts of development which the western world has relied upon and how it can be customized to meet their needs and requirements. The same is true with information and communication technology as it is seen as the medium and channel of growth in the western countries but the same has not been true for the emerging markets although there has been instances of change. ICTs are mostly value-driven, contextual and moulded by the local features rather than a standardized process. All these factors have led to the unequal growth of ICT all over the world (Rodrigues, Marks Steel 2003). Similar debates have also been raised regarding the efficacy of ICT as the medium of development. Few scholar are of the opinion it has percolated the divide more than it has contributed to the social upliftment of the downtrodden (Rovegno 2002). However, there is also a significant majority to whom ICT is viewed as a measuring tool for the sustainable development of individuals, communities and nations, hence, a necessity. ICT have the potential to play the role of game changer in several of the crucial public administration mechanisms like business, education, health, and environment, among others (Qureshi 2011). It has been argued in several researches that ICT act as the elixir which paves the path for growth and development in economically weaker sections of the society. This has motivated the considerably low income countries to move for digital transformation which will in tune take care of the developmental problems. However this is an assumption which is best described only in theoretical models but its practical applicability is widely debated. The concept that access to information technology leads to increase in production, participate in labour markets, and contribute in reciprocal exchanges with other people has not been proved successful universally. People have also tried to establish their argument in favour of ICT through empirical evidence which states the growing proportion of ICTs in the world economic output. The most optimistic viewpoint is that the growth of ICT would empower the emerging markets to leapfrog the stages of development and be on the same footing with the d eveloped nations (Qureshi 2010). This would be driven by the outsourcing of information and communication technology activities from the businesses in the developed nation and their implementation by the experts in the developing countries. In short this would lead to the rise of the service industry and bring about the radical change in the economy of the emerging markets. A result to substantiate these claims can be seen from the study which was conducted to prove that the correlation between growth and prosperity to the use of smartphones is more profound in the developing countries than in the developed nations (Parker 2008). There are also several opposing views regarding the efficacy of ICT since many scholars are of the opinion that this will only result in further inequalities with respect to opportunities that are available (Paraskeva et al. 2007). It is generally observed that the geographies that are well connected and have been governed by a good administration with several economic and social advantages have been best posed to reap the benefits of ICTs. On the other hand, countries which have unstable government with limited access to infrastructure and social or cultural stigmas prevalent in their society have not been able to leverage the growth and development through ICTs. The concept of integrating poor nations with internet or ICTs have proved to be an abstract concept. A perfect example would an emerging country like India where ICT have helped in the development of the information technology industry but have failed in the social upliftment or providing amenities to the poor. The inequali ty and digital divide between the rich and poor have evolved and expanded over the years in a country like India. The same can be told about another developing nations. In those nations ICT development are not so crucial than investing in other pressing requirements (Mohammad Kamal 2016). Then there is the middle-ground opinion which talks about the development agenda through ICTs only if they are applied properly. Few scholars have investigated and come out with the opinion that increase in telecommunication and installation of telephone have resulted in the development of the rural people (Martens 2015). This calls for further research in this domain to ascertain the hypothesis that whether ICT installation and expansion can facilitate the social and economic growth of a country particularly the poor. Existing research does not specifically talk about the targeted benefits of ICTs in developing countries. They are more focused on the generic benefits that a country reaps through the implementation of IT and engineering solutions. However, it has been observed empirically that most of these benefits are leveraged by the wealthy and well to do people of a country (Kostakos Ferreira 2015). As we have discussed about several issue there is also considerable discussion regarding the issue of digital divide which has led to the inequitable distribution of economic benefits through information technology. For further discussion one needs to understand the definition of digital divide which is concerned with "situations in which there is a marked gap in access to or use of ICT devices" (Khwaja 2016). There is also ensuing debate in this respect as a group of scholar believe that the need for a discussion on digital divide is irrelevant since all the people who are in need of digital services especially in the developing countries have already access to such services or they must not be needing them and for that reason do not have them. However there has been several instances where it has been proved that if the reach of the digital services can be extended to those people then it leads to significant improvement in their lifestyle. There have been very stark examples withi n the same country where ICTs have been able to transform the lives of a certain part of the country while the remaining sections still live in oblivion (Faler 2010). It is expected that in the near future these differences will be eradicated through improved delivery of ICT infrastructure and social inclusion drive which aims to bring more people under the realm of the information society. There has been significant rise in the development of computing power, reduction in the cost of transportation of data through optical fibre networks, and significant convergence of information and communication technologies. At the end it can be said that this research deals more with the issue of bridging the gap rather than the requirement for debating that whether there is digital divide or not (Dror 2004). Research Questions, Aims and Objectives: The aim of the research is to understand the impact of ICTs on the growth and development of the social and economic sectors in the country. Their impact in transforming the lives of the downtrodden by providing them with increased scope for job opportunities and other facilities. The specific research objective questions include: What are the specific impacts of ICTs in the lower strata of the society especially in the developing countries? What are different methods of measurement to determine the above impact? To investigate the numerous methods that can be employed for bridging the gap between the ICT implementation of developed and developing countries? Theoretical Content/Research Methodology: The theoretical basis on which the research will be designed is the impact of digital transformation on the developing nations with special reference to the low income people in the society. The hypothesis for the analysis would be as follows: Advancement in ICT and digital transformation does not lead to any significant development of the low income people at the bottom of the pyramid particularly in developing nations. The methodology that will be used for the investigation of the aforementioned research topic is both qualitative and quantitative which is popularly called as the mixed methodology. The qualitative aspect will be looking at the social and economic factors of a country which have led to the failure of bridging the gap in development through the implementation of ICTs. The governance in the country and their political stability will be critically analysed to understand the effects and expansion of ICTs. As this requires data of diverse country sets it will be mostly conducted through secondary research and publicly available data for the analysis purpose (Dagiene Grabauskiene 2011). The quantitative model will be based on the capability index approach formulated by Amartya Sen for which he was awarded wide accolades. This index is mainly concerned with calculating the human development index which can be derived by incorporating several factors. This index can be modified as per the needs of the research and then applied to dig out the factors which is leading to the digital divide or disparity among the people in the country. This mixed methodology is expected to be successful in evaluating the research objectives as stated in the previous section (Burnett et al. 2006). Experimental Set Up: Sometimes in a quest to acquire record and data points, we might have to evaluate records which are confidential in nature or should not be disclosed in public. As we would try to maintain the privacy and accuracy of such data people might be sceptical about the use of such information. But in order achieve success in the research it has to be designed in such a manner so that it can be employed and utilised in the best possible manner to get the outcomes which are not skewed or biased (Browne Gavin 2010). Results and Outcome: At the end of the research proposal discussion it can be said that this article has thoroughly discussed all the aspects of the present literature that is available and also highlighted the issues that are pressing in this domain. With this research it is expected to understand the various reasons behind digital divide and the factors which have led to underdevelopment of few nations although there has been widespread implementation of ICT. The methodology of the research design id appropriate for the analysis that has been decided and would fetch the best possible results. Finally it is justified to mention that this research makes an attempt to critically analysed and investigate the reasons for the failed implementation of ICTs in the developing countries with special reference to the downtrodden people (Angeli Valanides 2005). Project Planning And Gantt Chart: Dates are indicative and can be replaced by actual project dates. References Angeli, C. Valanides, N. 2005, 'Preservice elementary teachers as information and communication technology designers: An instructional systems design model based on an expanded view of pedagogical content knowledge', Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 292302. Browne, P. Gavin, T. 2010, 'Support for information technology development', Information Development, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 2027. Burnett, C., Dickinson, P., Myers, J. 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Voogt Netherlands, T. 2010, 'Teacher factors associated with innovative curriculum goals and pedagogical practices: Differences between extensive and non-extensive ICT-using science teachers - Voogt - 2010 - journal of computer assisted learning - Wiley Online library', Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 453464, viewed 6 June 2016, https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00373.x. Weigel, D.J. 2006, 'Mothers literacy beliefs: Connections with the home literacy environment and pre-school children's literacy development', Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 191211.